Channels of horizontal mobility. Mechanisms and channels of social mobility. Commonality of historical experience, historical memory

In societies with an open stratification system, there are established channels of social mobility. For example, everyone knows that obtaining a higher education is a fairly reliable channel through which a person from an uneducated family can improve his status and get the opportunity to engage in qualified, prestigious work. Girls who are trying their best to get married are trying to use another channel of mobility - to increase their status through marriage. Any military man knows that service in remote and dangerous places can be a channel of mobility, because it allows (although not always) to quickly rise to high ranks.

Closed systems also have their own (very tight) mobility channels. For example, the fates of Cinderella from a fairy tale or the serf actress Praskovya Kovaleva (Zhemchugova), who became Countess Sheremeteva, show that dizzying “jumps” were occasionally possible thanks to inter-class marriage. Another channel could be a spiritual career: the great philosopher Cardinal Nicholas of Cusa was born into a poor fishing family, but became a monk, received an education and acquired a high social status, joining the upper class.

To belong to the dominant class, it is extremely important to have family capital. It can take various forms: large financial and industrial enterprises, a network of economic, political, social and family relations, privileged access to cultural means. Most often, members of the dominant class marry among themselves, study at the same schools or prestigious universities, and sit on the same administrative boards at enterprises. It is these three main elements, i.e. a significant economic inheritance, a wide range of relationships and significant family support ensure that the ruling classes have political and economic power. Thus, in France, all researchers recognize the existence of a financial oligarchy - a limited number of families that own and manage fantastic wealth; they have unheard of power in society. These people are connected to each other by money and kinship. They not only lead the economy, but also hold the reins of political power. Experts note that in France, money, and therefore real political power, has been in the hands of the same families since the coup d'etat of 1799, which brought Napoleon Bonaparte to power... To be part of the ruling class, it is better to be born into it or marry a member of this class.

In Russian society, the specifics and importance of social capital are revealed when analyzing the social capital of Russian youth, the adequate and effective use of which is the key to the success of both young people and the entire society. A comparative analysis of data over the past 10 years in the field of mastering various skills among young people has led to the conclusion that computer literacy has almost doubled. However, over the past time, the practice of driving a car or communicating in foreign languages ​​- important competencies in the modern world - has expanded slightly.

The confidence of modern youth and their optimism are manifested in their assessments of life prospects and plans. In general, as shown by the results of a study by the Institute of Sociology of the Russian Academy of Sciences in 2007, more than half of young Russians are confident that they can achieve more than either of their parents. Overall, in 2007, 76% (in 1997 - 68%) of Russian youth are confident that they are able, at a minimum, to reproduce the social status that their parents have, and only a few percent (2%) think that that they can’t do that either. In addition, the share of such young men and women has halved over the past 10 years (Figure 2.4).

Scheme 2.4. Young Russians’ assessment of their life chances, %

This is one side of the coin, colored by youthful optimism, which pleases. But here is the other side, revealed during a study on the problem of low-income segments of the Russian population in 2008. In the current situation, the poor segments of the population find themselves completely excluded from the range of opportunities for obtaining a quality education as the basis for further success in life. And the needy and actually low-income only in rare cases can afford to send their children to paid clubs or attend paid courses for adults. The main consumers of paid educational services are the wealthy segments of the population.

You can hear accusations of a similar situation against the low-income people themselves, who simply do not strive to get a quality education and do everything possible for this. However, data from a sociological study conducted by the Institute of Sociology of the Russian Academy of Sciences in 2008 refute such statements (Diagram 2.5).

Scheme 2.5. Presence of an attitude towards obtaining a good education in various social strata, % of their working representatives

Source: Low-income people in Russia: Who are they? How do they live? What are they aiming for? Analytical report. M., 2008. http//www.isras.ru.

As can be seen in the diagram, the majority of not only low-income people, but also the poor would like to receive a quality education. But their chances of this are much less compared to those who are prosperous.

The unrealized opportunities and unachieved goals of many Russians correlate with a high degree of sense of injustice that people feel in relation to everything that is happening in modern Russia. Scientists have found that this feeling, which indicates the illegitimacy of the current order in the country in the eyes of Russians, is experienced today by the overwhelming majority (over 90%) of citizens, while 38% experience it often. If we remember the role of the concept of “justice or injustice of what is happening” in national Russian culture, then this is a very serious “call”. The strongest feeling of the injustice of everything that is happening around is observed among representatives of age groups over 40 years old (over 40%) and rural residents (48%).”

Thus, access to the highest spheres of the social hierarchy is not easy. Social mobility is greatly influenced by the situation (crisis or economic growth), as well as the structure of society. The answer to questions about mobility lies largely in the analysis of social organization. In societies such as traditional India, membership in a particular class was determined by the fact of birth in this class and it was impossible to leave it. In such cases, it was more about caste: within the caste people were born, married and died. In caste societies, social classes are tightly closed to people from other classes. Whatever merits individuals may have in this closed social structure, social mobility is impossible within them.

In societies like ours, classes are more open. You can go up or down the social ladder; in these cases we talk about either upward or downward mobility. Mobility can be considered within the life of one person. If a general worker has become a major specialist in the field of computer science, then this is intragenerational mobility (mobility within one generation).

However, mobility can be looked at from a different angle. This is, for example, the case of a university teacher whose father is a carpenter. Here we have intergenerational mobility (mobility connecting two generations). But can we consider that we live in such an open society that all social trajectories are possible? Is social mobility an act of volition? What is the impact of our parents' social class on our own class and ability to reach the top of the social pyramid?

Of course, some individuals from among the people manage to reach the top of the social pyramid even in conditions of a strictly limited system of social mobility. Consequently, such individual factors as will, energy, talent, family environment, and luck play their role. However, these factors come into play in an environment in which individuals from the lower classes are expected to display their best qualities to a greater extent than individuals from the privileged strata of society. And this is understandable: after all, the former initially have fewer advantages in terms of economic, cultural and social capital than the latter.

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Task No. 10052

Name any three channels of social mobility not mentioned in the text, and illustrate, in relation to modern society, the possibility of an individual moving through each of them (first indicate the channel, then give a corresponding example).

Because vertical mobility is present to varying degrees in every society, and because between the strata there must be some kind of “membranes”, “openings”, “ladders”, “elevators” or “paths” along which individuals are allowed to move up or down from one stratum in another, then it would be legitimate for us to consider the question of what these channels of social circulation actually are. The functions of social circulation are performed by various institutions... The most important of a number of these social institutions are... professional organizations... Some of these organizations also play a large role in the vertical movement of individuals. These are scientific, literary, creative institutions and organizations. Since entry into these organizations was relatively free for everyone who showed appropriate abilities, regardless of their social status, advancement within such institutions was accompanied by a general advancement up the social ladder. Many scientists, lawyers, writers, artists, musicians, architects, sculptors, doctors, actors, singers and other creators of simple origin have risen socially thanks to this channel. The same can be said about representatives of the middle strata who have reached even higher social positions. Among the 829 British geniuses studied by H. Ellis, 71 were the sons of unskilled workers who rose to high positions solely through this channel... In the United States, out of 1,000 writers, at least 187 achieved fame through this channel. 4% of the most famous scientists in Russia (academics), who achieved a high social position, came from a peasant environment. Mention should be made here of the press, especially newspapers, as a specific type of professional institution, as an important channel of vertical circulation. Currently, the role of the press in this regard has increased significantly. It can provide, at least for a while, an excellent career for any mediocrity, or destroy the career of a person of extraordinary ability. Directly or indirectly, it plays a huge role as a “social elevator.” “Fame” is something without which rapid advancement is now extremely difficult. It often brings fame out of nowhere, it opens or destroys talent, it can “transform” average abilities into genius ones, and it can also strangle a true genius. Therefore, those social groups that control the press play a large role in social circulation, because it represents one of the noisiest, most efficient and fastest elevators of circulation.

(P. A. Sorokin)

Explanation

The following channels of social mobility can be named and illustrated with examples:

1) business: for example, aspiring designer N., having opened an individual enterprise engaged in the production of printed products, expanded production over several years, became the head of the Polygraph company and achieved a higher economic position;

2) education: for example, bank employee L., having successfully completed her master’s degree, was transferred to a higher position;

3) army: for example, citizen V., who began service under a contract, was recommended by the command of the unit to study at a military school, after which V. received an officer rank and the opportunity for further promotion.

Other channels may be named and other examples given.

Example 1.

Three channels not mentioned in the text are correctly named and illustrated.

Rate this solution in points:

Example 2.

Two channels not mentioned in the text are correctly named and illustrated.

What are the most common mechanisms and driving forces by which social actors - individuals or groups - move from one stratum to another?

We will consider here two approaches to the typology of social mobility mechanisms. The first of them belongs to the American sociologists Paul and Bridget Berger. They identify five main mechanisms through which upward social mobility of individuals occurs. All of them, of course, are closely connected with each other, even to a certain extent flowing from one another, so that it is sometimes difficult to figure out what is the cause and what is the effect; although they can be considered (as well as act in real life) separately, independently of each other.

The Bergers call the first of these mechanisms economic activity, or, resorting to the scheme of stratification subspaces we considered, the efforts of an individual aimed at moving along one or another coordinate axis of the economic subspace. This can be accomplished through hard work, luck, connections, maybe even fraud. However, it is clear that by advancing his social positions along any of the three coordinate axes, an individual noticeably increases his chances of increasing his status along the other two, and then (in accordance with the law of status crystallization) in the other two subspaces of the stratification system.

The second mechanism is rationally calculated marital partnership. In other words, an individual can significantly improve his social position by getting married successfully. True, as the Bergers note, “this mechanism in our society is more easily accessible to women than to men, but it is by no means limited to women alone.”

The third most important mechanism for modern society to increase its status, according to the Bergers, is improving educational level . This mechanism is especially important, first of all, because here the individual is least dependent on the vagaries of chance, as well as on how favorable those around him are to him, and to the greatest extent on his personal qualities - intelligence, will, conscientiousness. Of course, from the point of view of the parameters of the professional subspace, an increase in the level of education in itself serves as evidence of an increase in status. However, there is a fairly close connection between the level of education received and other parameters of overall social status. In particular, in modern society, the level of education shows a direct positive relationship with an individual’s income.

The fourth mobility mechanism is political. It occurs when improvements in the position of an individual or an entire group are achieved through political pressures, deals or guarantees obtained by entire social groups organized in parties, associations and unions such as trade unions. Thus, the trade unions of Russian miners, through strikes, “rail wars” and other mass actions, still extract wages from government organizations, while less organized teachers and doctors remain losers. This is a particularly important mechanism in terms of group rather than individual mobility. Therefore, for example, American blacks and other non-white minorities today actively use political means to pressure society to grant and guarantee collective improvements in the positions of their members in the stratification system.

Finally, there is a mechanism that is perhaps best described by a concept introduced, albeit for slightly different purposes, by the American sociologist Erwin Goffman - "impression management". This is mobility achieved through the manipulation of status symbols and the demonstration of personal attractiveness. It is most easily seen in such a social context as the "society" of regulars of fashionable cafes and restaurants or various "parties", in which all types of hangers-on provide the opportunity for other visitors to think of themselves as people who have already made a career in one or another sector of stratification. Since from the point of view of society as a whole such a mechanism is probably of the least importance, it can almost certainly be said that it acts rather as one of the elements in the process of many individuals using the first four mechanisms.

Second approach The author of this term, Pitirim Sorokin, proposed identifying the factors of social mobility half a century earlier. He introduces an important concept - social mobility channels . This concept denotes those social institutions, falling within the scope of which individuals and entire groups commit guaranteed(to a certain extent) climbing the social ladder. This is like a kind of elevator: you can climb to the upper floors of a building using ordinary stairs (which is quite tedious and - especially in very tall buildings - not everyone can do), or you can use an elevator for this purpose, which usually transports passengers in whole groups. True, access to such an elevator is limited by peculiar “filters” (or “social testing mechanisms”), which do not let everyone through their doors, but produce a kind of selection for suitability. Sorokin considers a number of such social institutions that serve as mobility channels.

Army. A professional military man (in particular, an officer) in our society, having begun his career as a lieutenant, after two years of service receives the rank of senior lieutenant, after another three years - captain, after four more majors, and so on. Of course, here it is necessary to regularly undergo various checks to determine suitability for the position held - these are the filters of this channel. Moreover, there are actually different filters for peacetime and for wartime. During periods of hostilities (for which, in fact, the army is created and maintained), promotion opportunities are much more effective - firstly, due to the fact that a sufficiently large number of officers die, thereby freeing up vacancies for junior officers; secondly, during this period, the requirements for the qualities of officers change sharply and become more stringent, and some of the senior commanders may leave their posts, even while remaining alive, because they do not meet these requirements.

Moreover, it should be noted that this institution of the army, due to its great importance in the entire social structure, acts as a channel of mobility not only within its own framework. Thus, P. Sorokin provides the following data: “Out of 92 Roman emperors, 36 reached this high position, starting from the lower social strata, moving up the social ladder precisely thanks to military service.” The founders of the prominent royal dynasties of medieval Europe, such as the Capetians and Merovingians, were generals; Napoleon and all his brilliant entourage, people from whom occupied the thrones of European states - they were all military. Let's not talk about Latin American and African dictators, most of whom came to power on army bayonets. Let us mention such outstanding presidents of our time as D. Eisenhower and S. de Gaulle - generals elected to government positions primarily due to their military merits.

It should be noted that this channel is very effective, firstly, for those individuals who successfully pass its filters (the presence of personal courage, determination, discipline, organizational abilities, etc.), and secondly, during special historical periods. Thus, it is very attractive to males in all traditional societies where the likelihood of military conflicts is high. A military career was a rather enviable lot, for example, in the Soviet Union in the period leading up to the Great Patriotic War and immediately after it. However, in advanced industrial and especially post-industrial societies, the importance of this channel is noticeably reduced.

Church. A particularly important channel in class societies, where a person from a low class, even with outstanding abilities, had very little chance of receiving, say, a noble title. The Church recruited the most capable youth of the lower classes into the ranks of its hierarchs, giving them the opportunity to satisfy their ambitious ambitions. Not all the highest hierarchs of the church could boast of aristocratic origin. Sorokin, who carried out special statistical calculations, points out that out of 144 Catholic popes, 28 were from the common people, and 28 came from those strata that are called today the middle classes.

Of course, there were also filters here. For example, tonsure as a monk (namely, it was an indispensable condition for a career in the church hierarchy of Christianity) required the renunciation of hopes of getting married. In addition, we should not forget that church organizations have more than once become a channel of downward movement in history, when mass persecution of heretics, apostates, pagans, and infidels unfolded (suffice it to recall the religious wars of the Reformation era, the Night of St. Bartholomew, the Russian Old Believers).

This channel of mobility also played one of the most important roles, especially in traditional society; however, it begins to decline significantly during the industrial revolution, one of the most important consequences of which is secularization.

Economic organizations. Sorokin calls them "wealth creation organizations." A career within an economic organization opens the way for many motivated people, for example, to move up the political ladder. Indeed, in a society where the core around which almost all other social relations are built is private property, it simply cannot be otherwise. And the institution in which these relations dominate and in which material values ​​are created cannot but be one of the most influential social institutions.

Whatever coordinate axis in the system of economic stratification we take, vertical ascent along it will inevitably lead to ascension along the other two - according to the principle of status crystallization. And by the same token, economic success will significantly increase the chances of upward mobility in the other two social subspaces. And no matter what the adherents of orthodox communist ideology say, the true creators and inspirers of the industrial revolution, which radically changed the face of human society, those who put its basic socio-economic laws into action were capitalists in the early stages of industrialization and managers in its more mature stages. And the high social status that they occupy in society, having displaced the tribal feudal aristocracy, is, as a rule, well deserved by them. “A successful entrepreneur,” says P. Sorokin, “is the largest aristocrat of modern society.”

According to Sorokin’s statistics, of the 662 millionaires of the 19th-20th centuries, whose data he studied, 71.4 percent were manufacturers, bankers, stockbrokers, traders, transport workers, that is, people who, for the most part, did not inherit their huge fortunes and did not receive it in finished form, and those who achieved it thanks to their knowledge, enormous energy, and ability to establish relationships with other people.

Political organizations. Sorokin brings together “government groups, political organizations and political parties” in this institute. The importance of this channel is difficult to overestimate; moreover, it seems to us that it is quite obvious. “The careers of many outstanding statesmen began either as the personal secretary of an influential politician, or even as low-ranking officials.” Let us only note that this channel, like the institution of the church, can become a channel of downward group mobility in the event of an unfavorable political situation.

Education. Since we have already discussed the significance of this mobility channel in sufficient detail above, we will note only two points here. Firstly, filters and the mechanisms of their action are understood here more clearly and distinctly than anywhere else - systems for assessing current performance, as well as various examinations and tests; Those who do not pass these filters are either not allowed to enter the next stages of the channel or leave it altogether. Secondly, it should be noted that in modern societies the importance of this channel (unlike, say, the army or the church) is not just increasing enormously; passing it becomes a downright obligatory condition for advancement along any scale of social hierarchy.

Family. At first glance, this is the same mechanism for increasing one’s social status through marriage that the Bergers talked about. However, here the family is meant, rather, as an extended one, including the entire complex of extended family ties, including along the lateral lines. Of course, the most important role here is played by direct family ties - parents-children, brothers-sisters. Probably, since the emergence of the institution of the monogamous family, parents have always tried to provide their children with social positions no lower than their own. In traditional societies, the influence of clan ties, which are also formed on the basis of family relations, is very strong.

Although, of course, since mobility is associated not so much with preservation, but with change social position, then the most important among many of these relationships should really be considered entering into a marriage union with a representative (male or female) of a powerful clan. Here, too, there are filters, which consist, first of all, in certain tests of loyalty to the clan to which the applicant joins, as well as the willingness to accept the rules of the game that have developed in this clan. However, this is not enough. He (or she) who decides to take this particular path of increasing his social status must often be prepared to share the fate of his new family in the event of unfavorable circumstances leading this family or the entire clan of which it is part of group downward mobility. A classic example of the recent past from Russian history: the marriage of a young talented journalist A. Adzhubey to the daughter of the then all-powerful Khrushchev and a rapid career rise; however, with the fall of Khrushchev, he, as a professional, went into complete oblivion, and since then we have not read a single line written by him.

The importance of this channel, which prevailed in pre-industrial societies, declines significantly in the era of modernization and continues to decline in postmodern conditions. There are two reasons for this: firstly, the role of other channels is significantly increasing; secondly, in modern societies the crisis of the monogamous family is becoming more and more noticeable.

It is worth noting an important feature of the action of the above channels of social mobility: they do not act alone, but in a system, in combination with each other. This applies even to such seemingly opposing channels as the church and education: in order to make a career in the church hierarchy, you need to study quite a lot and persistently (even if not in formal educational institutions, but through self-education) in order to know the subtleties and details well the dogmas of their religion and the canons of theology. In the army (of course, in peacetime), for a successful military career it is extremely important to have not only a fairly high level of specialized education, but also family ties. Oddly enough, the same applies to the relationship between channels such as family and education. Until now, even in the most advanced societies (and even more so than in underdeveloped ones), there is a system of distinguishing universities according to the degree of prestige and privilege. A person from a family of a worker or a petty clerk can get into such universities only if they have outstanding abilities (which also serves to strengthen their prestige). However, this applies not only to the higher education system. One US study from the 1960s found that 44 percent of children from families with annual incomes of more than $10,000 had attended college; 17 percent are from families with incomes between $5,000 and $7,000; and that figure dropped to 9 percent for children from families with incomes below $5,000. Here we also find a connection between the education channel not only with the institution of the family, but also with the economic channel.

In societies with an open stratification system, there are established channels of social mobility. For example, obtaining a higher education is the simplest and most reliable rope, by moving along which a person from an uneducated family can improve his status and get the opportunity to engage in skilled, prestigious work. Girls seeking to get married advantageously try to use another channel of mobility - to increase their status through marriage. Any military man knows that service in remote and dangerous places is a channel of mobility, because it allows you to quickly rise to high ranks.

Closed systems also have their own - very close - mobility channels. For example, the fate of Cinderella from the fairy tale by Charles Perrault, the serf actress Zhemchugova, who became Countess Sheremeteva, suggests that dizzying leaps were occasionally possible thanks to inter-class marriage. Another channel could be a spiritual career: the great philosopher Cardinal Nicholas of Cusa was born into a poor fishing family, but became a monk, received an education and acquired a high social status, joining the upper class. In Tsarist Russia, higher education automatically entailed obtaining personal nobility.

Family capital is an important factor in belonging to the dominant class. It can take various forms: large financial and industrial enterprises, a network of economic, political, social and family relations, privileged access to cultural means, etc. It is these three basic elements - a significant economic inheritance, a wide range of relationships and significant family support - that ensure that the ruling classes have political and economic power. For example, in France, notes D. Berto, the financial oligarchy - a limited number of families - owns and manages fantastic wealth and has enormous power in society. These people are connected to each other by money and kinship. Most often, members of the dominant class marry each other, study at the same schools or prestigious universities, serve on the administrative boards of enterprises, etc. They not only lead the economy, but also hold power. Experts in the history of banking and oligarchy point out that for the past 170 years, “in France, money, and therefore real political power, has been in the hands of the same families since the coup d’état that brought Napoleon Bonaparte to power in 1799, coup, which was financed by the founders of the state." To be part of the ruling class, it is better to be born into it or marry a representative of this class.

The specificity and importance of social capital in Russian society are revealed when analyzing social capital, the adequate and effective use of which is the key to the success of both young people and the entire society.

A comparative analysis of data over the past 10 years on the mastery of various skills among young people has led to the conclusion that computer literacy has almost doubled, but the passage of time has had little effect on the increase in the prevalence of driving a car or communicating in foreign languages ​​- important competencies in the modern world. At the same time, the popularity of acquiring skills in driving a motorcycle or using a weapon has decreased among young people.

The confidence of modern youth and their optimism are manifested in their assessments of their life prospects and plans. In general, as shown by the results of a study by the Institute of Sociology of the Russian Academy of Sciences, more than half of young Russians are confident that they can achieve more than their parents. In general, 76% of Russian youth are confident that they are able to at least reproduce the social status that their parents have, and only a few percent (2%) think that they cannot do this either. Moreover, the proportion of such the number of young people and girls has halved over the past 10 years.

In modern Russia, the poor sections of the population find themselves completely excluded from the range of opportunities for obtaining a quality education as the basis for further success in life, and the needy and actually low-income only in rare cases can pay for their children to attend paid clubs or to attend paid courses. The main consumers of paid educational services are the wealthy segments of the population. Sometimes in such a situation, the low-income people themselves are blamed for the fact that they simply do not strive to receive a quality education and do not do everything possible for this. However, data from a sociological study conducted by the Institute of Sciences of the Russian Academy of Sciences refute such statements.

The unrealized opportunities and unachieved goals of many Russians correlate with the sense of injustice that they experience in relation to everything that is happening in modern Russia. This feeling, which testifies to the illegitimacy of the current world order in Russia in the eyes of Russians, is experienced today by the overwhelming majority (over 90%) of Russians; while 38% experience it frequently. Since in Russian culture the role of justice and injustice is very large, these indicators are a very serious “call”. Representatives of age groups over 40 years of age (over 40%) and rural residents (48%) experience the most persistent feeling of injustice of everything that is happening around them.

Thus, the path to the higher spheres of the social hierarchy is not easy. Social mobility is greatly influenced by the situation (situation of crisis or economic growth) and the structure of society. The answer to questions about mobility is provided by the analysis of social organization. In closed societies, social classes are closed to representatives of other classes, and social mobility is impossible in them. In societies like ours, classes are more open and one can move up or down the social ladder.

Some individuals from the popular environment manage to reach the top of the social pyramid even in conditions of a strictly limited system of social mobility, since individual factors play their role - will, energy, talent, family environment, luck. However, individuals from the lower classes should exhibit these qualities to a greater extent than individuals from the privileged classes, since the former have initially less advantages in terms of economic, cultural and social capital.

Those methods are considered as channels of social mobility - they are conventionally called “steps of the ladder”, “elevators” - using which people can move up and down in the social hierarchy. For the most part, such channels at different times were: political authorities and socio-political organizations, economic structures and professional labor organizations (labor collectives, firms with a built-in system of production property, corporate institutions, etc.), as well as the army, church, school, family-clan ties (factors of home education, social authority of the family, private property, and family support in general were at work).

In traditional society, the listed channels of social mobility were used very widely. In modern society, the role of some of these structures as channels of social mobility is decreasing (for example, churches, families), but the importance of other channels is increasing, within which new forms of social mobility are being developed. Therefore, the above list should be specified, highlighting the sphere of financial and banking activities, technical creativity, activity in the field of mass media and computer technology as mobility channels. Let us also highlight the effect of a channel that has been stable in different eras in different countries for increasing the status of representatives of certain strata through involvement in shadow or criminal activities. Nowadays this channel is represented both in a developed society (transnational mafia associations in the field of distribution of weapons, drugs, etc.) and in a traditional society (family-clan and gangster groups).

The indicated channels of social mobility (with the exception of criminal, which attracts certain socio-psychological types of people), as a rule, are closely intertwined with each other, that is, they act simultaneously, sometimes confronting, sometimes complementing each other. Taken as a whole, channels of social mobility create a system of institutional and legal requirements, organizational capabilities, and specific rules for moving people up or down the social ladder, thus forming complex mechanisms of social selection of people for certain positions and status roles. The combined effect of these mechanisms at different stages of a person’s life makes it easier for him to maintain an ascriptive status or achieve a better status, but a positive result in itself does not guarantee - using these mechanisms, a person must make considerable personal efforts to achieve the best.

In the past, hereditary class ties remained the leading ones in these mechanisms, which allowed the overwhelming majority of the younger generation to maintain an ascriptive status position. At the same time, the preservation of higher ascriptive statuses was accompanied by the fulfillment of a considerable number of social duties. The transition from one class to another, although difficult, also remained possible. Thus, in medieval imperial China and the Russian Empire, a representative of the middle strata (including wealthy peasants, merchants, and children of clergy) could advance in the civil service if they had a high level of education.

The learning process and the child’s mastery of book wisdom was largely determined by family circumstances. But during study and then in the service, much depended on the person himself - he had to demonstrate loyalty to the professional environment, show perseverance and intelligence. In other societies, the role of school and education in changing status was limited; either the army or the religious environment could come to the fore in importance. At the same time, the role of the family, the support of others, and the personal qualities of the person himself remained important.

An illustration of what has been said can be the life path of the Russian reformer M. M. Speransky (1772-1839). Coming from the family of a poor rural priest, having been educated at a provincial seminary, he early discovered brilliant abilities for independent thinking, was hardworking, well-read, and gifted. All this set him apart from the circle of seminarians, which allowed the church authorities to recommend him to serve a government nobleman who needed a secretary for business correspondence. Entry into the highest circle of the Russian bureaucracy brought Speransky onto the broad road of public service.

In the conditions of modern society, the main emphasis in the mechanisms of social mobility is transferred to educational and professional training, while the role of the individual qualities of a person seeking to improve his situation increases. Let us consider the process of professional selection using the example of scientific and creative activity. For society to recognize a young person as a scientist, it is necessary, although not sufficient, for him to have a diploma of higher education, which allows him to begin a scientific career.

The professional environment will then recognize his scientific status when the results of his independent work are qualified by his colleagues as significant. At the same time, the results of his work will be constantly subject to meticulous analysis. He himself must master the art of conducting scientific debate, finding supporters, and achieving the practical implementation of his discoveries. Positional and qualification advancement will help him establish himself in a professional environment in which, in addition to official status, a very important prerequisite for a person’s development as a scientist is a circle of friends and like-minded people. But the main factor of recognition is scientific results recognized by wide public circles. On this path, the scientist must gain supporters in practical areas; he will not be hindered by fame among the general public achieved through the media. Family members should patiently help in his creative development, without expecting quick material returns and public recognition. Taken together, all these circumstances constitute the mechanisms of social selection in the field of research activities.

Thus, one can see that the “sieve” of a person’s repeated passage through the mechanisms of social selection existed in the past and continues to exist today in any sphere of life, especially becoming more stringent in cases where we are talking about the possibility of achieving a relatively high position in society. These selection mechanisms do not guarantee the error-free distribution of all people into social strata and positions in accordance with their real abilities. However, taken as a whole, they allow a more or less satisfactory redistribution of social energy, avoiding acute confrontation and balancing the interests of different groups.

The most complete description of vertical mobility channels for its time was given by P. Sorokin. Only he calls them channels of vertical circulation. He believes that since vertical mobility to one degree or another exists in any society, even in primitive ones, there are no impassable boundaries between strata. Between them there are various openings, elevators, membranes, but through which individuals move up and down.

Of particular interest are social institutions – army, church, school, family, property, which are used as social circulation channels(Fig. 13.6).

Army functions as a channel not in peacetime, but in wartime. Large losses among the command staff lead to filling vacancies from lower ranks. In wartime, soldiers advance through talent and courage. Having risen in rank, they use the resulting power as a channel for further advancement and accumulation of wealth. They have the opportunity to rob, pillage, seize trophies, take indemnities, take away slaves, surround themselves with pompous ceremonies and titles, and transfer their power by inheritance.

Rice. 13.6.

It is known that out of 92 Roman emperors, 36 achieved this, starting from the lower ranks. Of the 65 Byzantine emperors, 12 were promoted through military careers. Napoleon and his entourage, marshals, generals and the kings of Europe appointed by him came from commoners. Cromwell, Grant, Washington and thousands of other commanders rose to the highest positions through the army.

Church as a channel of social circulation, it moved a large number of people from the bottom to the top of society. Gebbon, Archbishop of Reims, was a former slave. Pope Gregory VII is the son of a carpenter. P. Sorokin studied the biographies of 144 Roman Catholic popes and found that 28 came from the lower strata, and 27 from the middle strata. The institution of celibacy (celibacy), introduced in the 11th century. Pope Gregory VII, obliged the Catholic clergy not to have children. Thanks to this, after the death of officials, the vacated positions were filled with new people.

In addition to the upward movement, the church was a channel of downward movement. Thousands of heretics, pagans, enemies of the church were put on trial, ruined and destroyed. Among them were many kings, dukes, princes, lords, aristocrats and nobles of high rank.

School. Institutions of education and upbringing, no matter what specific form they take, have served in all centuries as a powerful channel of social circulation. The USA and the USSR are societies where schools are available to all its members. In such a society, the social elevator moves from the very bottom, passes through all floors and reaches the very top.

The USA and the USSR are the most striking example of how it is possible to achieve impressive successes, to become great industrial powers of the world, adhering to opposing political and ideological values, but equally providing their citizens with equal opportunities to receive an education.

Britain represents the other pole, where privileged schools are available only to the upper classes. The social elevator is short - it moves only on the upper floors of the social building.

Sociological workshop

How can a school or university serve as a social elevator? Give some examples from the surrounding life.

An example of the "long elevator" is ancient China. During the era of Confucius, schools were open to all grades. Exams were held every three years. The best students, regardless of their family status, were selected and transferred to high schools and then to universities, from where they were promoted to high government positions. Under the influence of Confucius, the government of the mandarins was reputed to be the government of Chinese intellectuals, exalted thanks to the school "mechanism". The educational test played the role of universal suffrage.

Thus, the Chinese school constantly elevated the common people and prevented the advancement of the upper classes if they did not meet the requirements. As a result, official duties in the government were performed as required, and positions were filled based on personal talents.

High competition for admission to colleges and universities in many countries is explained by the fact that education is the fastest and most accessible channel of upward mobility.

Own manifests itself most clearly in the form of accumulated wealth and money. They are one of the simplest and most effective ways of social promotion. In the XV–XVIII centuries. European society began to be ruled by money. Only those who had money, not noble birth, achieved high positions. The last periods of the history of Ancient Greece and Rome were the same.

P. Sorokin established that not all, but only some occupations and professions contribute to the accumulation of wealth. According to his calculations, in 29% of cases this allows the occupation of a manufacturer, in 21% - a banker and stockbroker, in 12% - a merchant. The professions of artists, painters, inventors, statesmen, miners and some others do not provide such opportunities.

Family and marriage become channels of vertical circulation if representatives of different social statuses enter into an alliance. In European society, the marriage of a poor, but titled partner with a rich, but not noble, partner was common. As a result, both moved up the social ladder, getting what each wanted.

We find an example of downward mobility in Antiquity. According to Roman law, a free woman who married a slave became a slave herself and lost her status as a free citizen.

Even primitive societies were interested in being ruled by the most gifted. But how to discover innate talents if there are no special methods and techniques? The ancients found a very simple way. Through empirical observation, they found that smart parents are more likely to have smart children, and vice versa. The thesis about the inheritance of the qualities of parents was firmly established in the minds of our ancestors. It is this that underlies the ban on inter-caste marriages. The lower the social position, the fewer virtues parents have and their children inherit. And vice versa. So it gradually arose institution of inheritance of social status parents by children - someone born into a family with a high social rank also deserves a high rank.

The family has become the main mechanism of social selection, determination and inheritance of social status. Coming from a noble family does not automatically guarantee good heredity and a decent education. Parents cared about the best upbringing of their children; this became a mandatory norm for the aristocracy. In poor families, parents could not provide adequate education and upbringing. Any society needs guarantees. They could be given by noble families. The managerial elite was recruited from them. The family has become one of the institutions for distributing members of society into strata.

Sociological workshop

In your family, how do parents ensure the best possible upbringing of their children? Tell us about it.

Ancient societies were more concerned about the stability of the family, because for them it was at the same time a school, a vocational training center, an industrial association, and much more. When the family began to lose its importance, its halo of sanctity, marriages easily broke up, and divorces became an everyday event, society had to take on all these functions. Schools emerged outside the family, production outside the family, services outside the family.

Children remain in the family only while they are minors. In fact, they grow up outside the family. The meaning of purity of blood and inherited qualities has been lost. People are increasingly being judged not by their family background, but by their personal qualities.

In addition to those listed, vertical circulation channels are political parties And professional groups.